National Transportation Systems Center

U.S. DOT Research and Innovative Technology Administration Names Joseph M. Monti Director of Volpe National Transportation Systems Center

Joseph M. Monti has been named the new director of the John A. Volpe National Transportation Systems Center in Cambridge, MA, Paul Brubaker, administrator of the Research and Innovative Technology Administration (RITA), announced today. Volpe is a federal center of transportation and logistics expertise that provides analytical, scientific, and engineering support to the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) and others.

“Joe Monti will help advance RITA’s center of transportation innovation and continue its history of supporting critical efforts to address the nation’s most pressing transportation priorities,” Brubaker said.

Since 2004, Monti served as the Director of the Sensors and SONAR Systems Department for the Naval Undersea Warfare Center (NUWC) Division in Newport, RI. At the NUWC, Monti directed a workforce of more than 500 federal employees, 250 contractors, and was responsible for over $200 million in U.S. Navy programs. He also established the Strategic Planning & Business Development Office at NUWC and directed and implemented the strategic planning, development and execution of new technical programs to address rapidly evolving Navy requirements and transformation initiatives.

Since the start of Monti’s federal career in 1983, he has held numerous technical and leadership positions at NUWC including chief scientist for the Critical Sea Test Program, director of the Technology & Advanced Systems Program Office, and director of the Concept Development Division. He also served as the program manager and chief scientist for the joint U.S. Navy and NATO Strategic Allied Command Atlantic Undersea Warfare Center Research Center Shallow Water Active SONAR Program.

Monti has been a key contributor to establishing undersea warfare mission requirements and war fighting capabilities for Navy transformational programs, such as 21st Century Destroyer, Unmanned Surface Vehicle and Littoral Combat Ship.

Monti earned a Bachelor of Science degree in marine biology from the University of Massachusetts and a Master of Science in Ocean Engineering and Executive Masters in Business Administration from the University of Rhode Island. He recently completed the Executive Certificate in Management and Leadership from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Sloan School of Management.

Car Shipping

Express Auto Transport has what you need in a trusted automobile transporter. Express Auto Transport is your source for your car shipping services. We are nationwide and offer door-to-door shipping. Our experienced and licensed drivers will provide superior service in shipping your car, motorcycle and other vehicles to your desired location

Bob Mover

Mover, Bob (Robert) (born March 22, 1952, Boston, Massachusetts) is an alto, tenor and soprano jazz saxophonist and a vocalist. His father was a musician who played professionally including stints with the Charlie Spivak orchestra. He started playing the alto saxophone at age 13, studied with Phil Woods at a summer music camp, and took private lessons with Ira Sullivan.o In 1973, at the age of 21, Mover was a sideman for Charles Mingus for a five-month period at New York City’s 5 Spot Café. By 1975 Mover was working regularly in New York City jazz clubs with Chet Baker and he made his first European appearances with Baker at La Grande Parade du Jazz in (Nice, France), Jazz Festival Laren (Holland), and the Middleheim Jazz Festival (Antwerp, Belgium).

Bob Mover

Mover, Bob (Robert) (born March 22, 1952, Boston, Massachusetts) is an alto, tenor and soprano jazz saxophonist and a vocalist. His father was a musician who played professionally including stints with the Charlie Spivak orchestra. He started playing the alto saxophone at age 13, studied with Phil Woods at a summer music camp, and took private lessons with Ira Sullivan.o In 1973, at the age of 21, Mover was a sideman for Charles Mingus for a five-month period at New York City’s 5 Spot Café. By 1975 Mover was working regularly in New York City jazz clubs with Chet Baker and he made his first European appearances with Baker at La Grande Parade du Jazz in (Nice, France), Jazz Festival Laren (Holland), and the Middleheim Jazz Festival (Antwerp, Belgium).

unmoved mover

The unmoved mover is a philosophical concept described by Aristotle as the first cause that sets the universe into motion. As is implicit in the name, the "unmoved mover" is not moved by any prior action. In his book Metaphysics, Aristotle describes the unmoved mover as being perfectly beautiful, indivisible, and contemplating only the perfect contemplation: itself contemplating. The Unmoved Mover is also referred to as the Prime Mover.

Speed limit signs

The END (speed limit) AREA sign indicates you are leaving the area covered by the area speed limit and re-entering a general speed limit area.

The (speed limit) AREA sign indicates the speed limit within the area you are about to enter.

The END (speed limit) sign is used at the start point of a section of road covered by the general default speed limit outside a built-up area, where it is not practical or desirable to indicate the speed limit by means of a speed restriction sign. The use of this sign is the exception rather than the rule.

You must not drive faster than the km/h speed shown in the circle. In poor conditions it is safer to drive slower than the speed limit

Some speed limit signs show times or days that the limit applies, e.g. in school zones. Other variable speed limit signs have a changeable electronic display to show the current speed limit, e.g. around sports venues. These variable speed limit signs may have different colours to the normal speed restriction sign.

Give way to pedestrians and do not drive faster than the km/h speed shown in the circle between this sign and the next END SHARED ZONE sign.

You have reached the end of a shared zone, the previous speed limit no longer applies and you are no longer required to give way to pedestrians.

Transport Minister looks into Shipping License Policy

The Office of the Minister for Transport, Works and Energy has been tasked by Cabinet to look into the conditions of shipping licensing system says Interim Minister, Manu Korovulavula. He revealed to the Department of Information that he has been tasked to look at and introduce a shipping route licensing system for ships in Fiji.

“Now my office is looking at the conditions and by the end of this month I will be issuing a policy on shipping licensing system. “Now I have tasked to look at and introduce the shipping route licensing system for ships in Fiji. Cabinet has now directed me to look at the viability of this operation whether it should be allowed or not,” he said.

Mr Korovulavula said the advantage of having a shipping routes system is that once a license is given to a ship or a shipping company the other ships cannot be allowed to encroach into that area or routes.

“ So it helps the license holder and gives it a secure investment and could help the shipping company get bank finance or refinancing. “ The bank will recognise the license as collateral. The current practice at the moment does not allow them any collateral because it is a one-year deal.”

Mr Korovulavula said this is not only at the local shipping service and they already had a meeting with the tourist operators in the west and the shipping operations for the tourist in the Yasawas and the Malolo and Mamanuca area which have a different kind of service.

“ Example their business is to transfer people or guests from one island to another and these are tourists and some locals as well. “ Another one is big fishing game which they go out fishing and underwater diving and surfing. These other things and I am very happy to say their support is very good,” he said.

Mr Korovulavula said the island people rely heavily on the ships service on the island which was why Government was seriously considering it.

“Because of the importance of that service government is looking at very seriously at it and trying its best to implement a system, a method and look at financing as well if ways to improve the service to the people in the island.

“Year by year there is no guarantee that that will continue so that is another disadvantage. Now I am looking at the franchise area shipping area where improvements can be made and that is the stand of the government at the moment as far as the shipping services is concerned.”

Speed of light

The speed of light in a vacuum is presently defined to be exactly 299,792,458 m/s (about 186,282.397 miles per second). This definition of the speed of light means that the metre is now defined in terms of the speed of light. The speed of light depends upon the nature of the medium in which it is traveling. Its speed is lower in a transparent substance than in a vacuum.

Different physicists have attempted to measure the speed of light throughout history. Galileo attempted to measure the speed of light in the seventeenth century. An early experiment to measure the speed of light was conducted by Ole Rømer, a Danish physicist, in 1676. Using a telescope, Ole observed the motions of Jupiter and one of its moons, Io. Noting discrepancies in the apparent period of Io's orbit, Rømer calculated that light takes about 22 minutes to traverse the diameter of Earth's orbit[2]. Unfortunately, this was not a value that was known at that time. If Ole had known the diameter of the Earth's orbit, he would have calculated a speed of 227,000,000 m/s.

Another, more accurate, measurement of the speed of light was performed in Europe by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1849. Fizeau directed a beam of light at a mirror several kilometers away. A rotating cog wheel was placed in the path of the light beam as it traveled from the source, to the mirror and then returned to its origin. Fizeau found that at a certain rate of rotation, the beam would pass through one gap in the wheel on the way out and the next gap on the way back. Knowing the distance to the mirror, the number of teeth on the wheel, and the rate of rotation, Fizeau was able to calculate the speed of light as 313,000,000 m/s.

Léon Foucault used an experiment which used rotating mirrors to obtain a value of 298,000,000 m/s in 1862. Albert A. Michelson conducted experiments on the speed of light from 1877 until his death in 1931. He refined Foucault's methods in 1926 using improved rotating mirrors to measure the time it took light to make a round trip from Mt. Wilson to Mt. San Antonio in California. The precise measurements yielded a speed of 299,796,000 m/s.

Two independent teams of physicists were able to bring light to a complete standstill by passing it through a Bose-Einstein Condensate of the element rubidium, one led by Dr. Lene Vestergaard Hau of Harvard University and the Rowland Institute for Science in Cambridge, Mass., and the other by Dr. Ronald L. Walsworth and Dr. Mikhail D. Lukin of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, also in Cambridge.

Signs and Signals In Road Transport

Signs
Traffic signs and signals are an essential part of the road traffic system. Paying attention to traffic signs helps you move around safely and efficiently. There are three types of traffic signs:

• regulatory signs
• warning signs
• guide signs

Regulatory signs
You must obey the instructions on these signs.

Stop
Stop and give way to all other vehicles approaching, entering or already on the intersection. If you turn at the intersection, you must also give way to pedestrians crossing the road you are entering.

Give way
Slow down or stop and give way to all other vehicles approaching, entering or already on the intersection. If you turn at the intersection, you must also give way to pedestrians crossing the road you are entering.

Roundabout
Slow down or stop and give way to all vehicles on the roundabout.

No turns
Do not turn right or left or make a U-turn at the intersection—you must only drive in the direction indicated by the arrow.

No entry
Do not drive onto the road beyond this sign.

No U-turn
Do not make a U-turn here.

No left turn
Do not turn left at the intersection.

No right turn
Do not turn right or do a u-turn at the intersection. Keep left You must drive to the left of this sign.

One way
You must drive only in the direction indicated by the arrow.

No overtaking or passing
Overtaking or passing another vehicle is not allowed from the NO OVERTAKING OR PASSING sign to: a distance past the sign indicated on the sign the end of the bridge, if the sign applies to a bridge an END NO OVERTAKING OR PASSING sign.

Wrong way – go back
This sign warns you that you are driving in the wrong direction along an exit ramp of a motorway.

Trucks & must drive in gear low
Trucks and buses must drive in a gear low enough to limit their speed without relying on the primary brake. Used on steep routes.

Keep left unless overtaking
When you drive past this sign on a multi-lane road, you must not drive in the right lane unless overtaking, turning right, making a U-turn, avoiding an obstacle or driving in congested traffic.

Two way
Vehicles travel in both directions on this road.

Integrated Transport System

The Government is committed to delivering an integrated transport system which meets economic and social needs but does not threaten the environment.

The aim is to:
tackle congestionpromote better public transport anddeliver vital missing links in the transport network

There a number of ways in which the Government seeks to do this:

Legislation
The Transport Act was designed to ensure that the Executive is equipped to deliver its aims for an integrated transport system
Policy progress
Progress in economic growth, greater accessibility, better integration, new ways of working and future developments

Transport Future - Guidance on Local Transport StrategiesLocal transport strategies

Local authorities' local transport strategies help deliver national and local transport objectives
Road traffic reduction
Work to help local authorities set, monitor and deliver rigorous, meaningful road traffic reduction targets

Transport appraisal guidance
Transport Appraisal Guidance (TAG) is designed to aid transport planners and decision-makers in the development of multi modal transport policies, plans, programmes and projects.

Bus Drivers' Responsibilities

Authorised bus drivers (including tourist bus drivers) must comply with all relevant requirements of the Passenger Transport Regulation 2007. Some of these requirements are:

Bus drivers must not
tout or solicit for passengers or for a hiring leave the driving seat of the bus without reasonable excuse smoke in the bus at any time eat or drink in the bus when in service or hired or available for hire move the bus while any door is open falsely advertise that they are authorised bus drivers carry any person on a tourist service bus whom you have reason to believe is not a tourist

Bus drivers must
ensure their vehicle is clean and tidy be clean and tidy, and be properly attired and wear enclosed shoes behave with civility and propriety towards any intending passengers, passengers, other bus drivers and authorised officers allow assistance animals or animals in training in their vehicle deliver lost property to its owner, your operator or a police station hand over driver licence and driver authority card to authorised officer when requested to do so

Establishment of Automobile in Industries

An automobile is wheeled motor vehicle designed with an engine or motor for transporting passengers across the country. Most of the term specifies that automobiles are designed to run on roads having seats for one or more eight people, typically with four wheels. The basic purpose for the establishment of automobile is to transport of people rather than goods.

Auto transportation is one of the important transport services provided by more number of companies to the people. Almost, in every state car shipping services is provided to the customers in excellent manner by carrying all sorts of goods and vehicles. More number of new automobiles are transported through different sorts of automobiles.

Requirements of Truck

A truck is vehicle that used to carry goods, materials like automobile parts, medicines and others. The term truck in car shipping refers to auto vehicles that carry goods and materials from one place to another. When gasoline engine driven trucks came into fashion, they were called as motor trucks. In United States, commercial driver license is required to drive across the country any type of vehicle that weights. Also, in Australia and New Zealand small vehicles with open back called ute and for large vehicles it is referred as truck.

The trucks are used for cargo transport and it has been created for specific task like trucks for concrete mixing and transport, light trucks for military. Trucks plays an important role in automobile industry and more number will be making use of the services provided.

Air transport

Air transport is one of the fastest moving auto transportation in the world. More number of people is making use of the services offered in the world. The term aviation refers to the activities involved for man made flying devices including people, organization and regulatory bodies. The fixed wing aircraft is commonly called airplane or aero plane that is heavier than air craft.

A heliplane is both fixed wing, rotary wing that ranges from small to large. Air transport is the second faster modes of transport after rocket. This mode of transport carries people, automobile accessories and other raw material quickly over long distance. For short distance, helicopters are the best modes which can be used properly.

Modes of Auto Transportation - Cable Transport

Among the different modes of transport, cable transport is one of the popular modes of transport used by the people in different parts of the world. The term cable transport refers to broad class of transport modes that rely on vehicles pulled by cables rather than having internal power source. Use of pulleys and balancing of loads goes up and down and the elements of cable transport. Some of the common modes are

Aerial tramway
Cable car
Cable ferry
Chairlift
Elevator
Funicular
Funitel
Gondola lift
Ski Lift

Services of Intermodal Transport

Intermodal transport is offered in two ways to the customers, one is intermodal freight transport and the other is intermodal passenger transport. The intermodal freight transport is the combination of multiple modes of transportation like auto transportation, water transport, air transport and still more for single shipment. The intermodal passenger transport is operated with the help of several modes of transports.

Almost, every passenger transport is considered to be intermodal transport. Here, in intermodal transport car shipping, moving of automobile accessories, new automobiles and other types of materials can be seen. Nowadays, more number of started using the intermodal transport for moving their vehicles, other accessories and making imports and exports. The public transport involves intermediate change of vehicle within or across modes at transport hub or at any station.

Types of Auto Insurance Coverage

Auto insurance is a policy framed to safeguard the consumers that protects the people carrying automotive vehicles from monetary losses against damages. There are basic types of auto insurance coverage available and some of them are

Bodily injury liability is an auto insurance that provides coverage for bodily injury of the people you might suffer injury.

In auto transportation, the insurance is property damage which covers any property that has been damaged.

When car shipping company is not properly insured and any of the automobile accessories gets damaged, then the company has to face the full losses. While if it is properly insured, then shipping company can remain hassle free.

The physical damage covers the damage made to the car or other vehicles.

Car Shipping Service Across the World

Ship transport is primarily used for carriage of people and non-perishable goods like car parts, car vehicles. Although the historic importance of sea travel for passengers has decreased, due to the rise of commercial aviation, it is still very effective for short trips, carrying automobile accessories and other pleasure cruises.

As ship transport is comparative slower than air transport, modern sea transport is considered to be an effective method of moving large quantities of non perishable goods. This type of transport is used for a variety of unpackaged raw materials ranging from chemicals, petroleum products, auto spares and bulk cargo such as coal, iron ore, cereals and bauxite.

Ship/Auto transportation remains the largest carrier of freight in the world. Water transport is significantly less costly than air transport for trans-continental shipping. Generally, car shipping is also referred as cargo. Ship transport is an international by nature, but it is accomplished by barge, boat, ship or sailboat over sea, ocean, lake, canal or river.

Flexibility of Petrol Engine in Auto Transportation

A Petrol engine or Gasoline engine is an internal combustion engine with spark ignition designed to run the car vehicles on petrol (gasoline) and similar volatile fuels. The automobile models differ from a diesel engine in the method of mixing the fuel and air, and in the fact that it uses spark plugs. In a diesel engine, merely the air is compressed, and the fuel is injected at the end of the compression stroke. In a petrol engine, the fuel and air are pre-mixed by automobile accessories before compression. The pre mixing was formerly done in a carburettor but now it is done by electronically-controlled fuel injection.

Applications

Petrol engines have many applications in new automobiles, including motor cars, motorcycles, aircraft, motorboats and small machines, such as lawn mowers, chainsaws and portable Engine-generators

In auto transportation, petrol engines may run on the four-stroke cycle or the two-stroke cycle.

Important Guidelines To Drivers

• In auto transportation, Obey Police Signal
• Park Your Vehicle in "Parking Areas" Only
• Do Not Stop Your Vehicle in the Middle of the Road
• Never be Under the Influence of Liquor while Driving
• Stop Your Vehicle When Pedestrians are Crossing the Road on Zebra Crossing
• Do Not Overtakes on Blind Corners
• Auto parts - Give Way to Up-Coming Vehicle
• Do Not Overload Your Vehicle With Passengers
• Use Dimmer During Night Travel
• Do Not Carry Goods which are not Legally Permitted
• During your auto shipping, always carry Your License and Relevant Papers of the Vehicle
• Be Polite to Passengers
• Exhibit your fare chat prominently to Passengers
• Keep First Aid Box in Your Vehicle
• Inform Police Immediately of any Motor Accident
• Keep your automobile accessories and check Your Vehicle Condition Before you take it out Every Morning
• Carry the Injured to Nearest Hospital whenever any Accident Occurs

Alternative Fuel Vehicles

Alternative fuels are derrived from resources other than petroleum. Some are produced domestically, reducing our dependence on imported oil, and some are derived from renewable sources. Often, they produce less pollution than gasoline or diesel. To promote alternative fuels, the Federal government offers tax incentives to consumers purchasing qualifying alternative fuel vehicles.

1. Biodiesel is derived from vegetable oils and animal fats. It usually produces less air pollutants than petroleum-based diesel.


2. Natural gas is a fossil fuel that generates less air pollutants and greenhouse gases.


3. Propane, also called liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), is a domestically abundant fossil fuel that generates less harmful air pollutants and greenhouse gases.


4. Hydrogen can be produced domestically from fossil fuels (such as coal), nuclear power, or renewable resources, such as hydropower. Fuel cell vehicles powered by pure hydrogen emit no harmful air pollutants.


5. Ethanol is produced domestically from corn and other crops and produces less greenhouse gas emissions than conventional fuels.

BIOMASS -- ENERGY FROM PLANT AND ANIMAL MATTER

Auto mobile automover car shipping parts transport engine system

Biomass is organic material made from plants and animals. Biomass contains fuel storage tank stored energy from the sun. Plants absorb the sun's energy in a process called photosynthesis. The chemical energy in plants gets passed on to animals and people that engine cooling system eat them. Biomass is a renewable energy source because we can always grow more trees and crops and fuel tanks, and waste will always exist. Some examples of biomass fuels are wood, crops, manure, and some garbage.

When burned, the chemical automobile parts energy in biomass is released as heat. If you have a fireplace, the wood you burn in it is a biomass fuel. Wood waste or garbage can be burned to produce steam for car shipping making electricity, or to provide heat to auto transport industries and homes.

Burning biomass is not the automoblie parts only way to release its energy. Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy like methane gas or auto transportation fuels like ethanol and biodiesel. Methane gas is the main ingredient of natural gas. Smelly stuff, like rotting garbage, and agricultural and human waste, release methane gas - also called "landfill gas" or "biogas." Crops like corn and sugar cane can be fermented to produce the auto transportation fuel, ethanol. Biodiesel, another transportation fuel, can be produced from left-over food products like vegetable oils and animal fats.

Biomass fuels provide about 3 percent of the energy used in the United States. People in the USA are trying to develop ways to burn more biomass and less fossil fuels. Using biomass for energy can cut back on waste and automobile parts support agricultural products grown in the United States. Biomass fuels also have a number of automover environmental benefits.

The four stroke diesel engine

Auto mobile automover car shipping parts transport engine system

diesel engine: mode of operation

1. Suction stroke: Pure air gets sucked in by the automobile piston sliding automobile downward.

2. Compression stroke: The piston compresses the automobile parts air above and uses automobile therby work, performed by the automover crankshaft.

3. Power stroke: In the automobile upper dead-center, the air is max. compressed: Pressure and Temperature are very high. Now the black injection pump injects heavy fuel in the hot air. By the high temperature the automobile fuel gets ignited immediately (autoignition). The automobile parts piston gets pressed downward and performes work to the crankshaft.

4. Expulsion stroke: The burned exhaust gases are ejected out of the auto cylinder through a second valve by the automobile piston sliding upward again.

First diesel engine prototypes

Auto mobile automover car shipping parts transport engine system

This principle is not as simple as it sounds. The conversion into the automover practice was very problematic. Such high pressures and temperatures had never been used automobile parts before, and the first experimental engine, built 1893 together with the Maschinenfabrik Augsburg (MAN) automover in Germany led to its destruction. Only a second automobile engine, built 1896, could convince the automobile engineers and performed an efficiency of about 25 percent, which was by far more than any other automobile engines performance at that time.

But the engine was not after automobile Diesel's requires yet: The compression ratio was still low and the max. pressure therefore small (about 30 bar), additionally a fuel injection was not yet possible. He had to use an air-injection, a procedure, which required many very complicated, expensive and heavy additional devices. This fuel engine could become generally accepted only with many difficulties, because of economic problems - fuel oil and petroleum were very expensive - and disputes about patents delayed a successful introduction.

Diesel's problems

Rudolf Diesel was pursued by patent quarrels, and scruplesless businessmen succeeded in acquiring rights for diesel's engine, so that he finally couldn't develop on his own automobile engine any more. Only 1908, when the patents had run and automover, he developed still smaller engines for the use in cars and trucks, together with the Swiss pioneer company Saurer. When he impoverished completely and didn't beleave any more in a successful advancement of his engine, he set an end to his life 1913 (see also biografie Rudolf Diesel).

Gasoline Fuels

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EPA regulations require that each automobile manufacturer or importer of gasoline, diesel fuel, or a fuel economy additive have its product registered prior to its automobile introduction into commerce. In some cases, EPA requires testing of these automobile fuels and fuel additives for possible health effects. EPA also requires that gasoline contain a certified detergent in order to reduce fuel emissions. EPA issued standards in 1973 that called for a gradual phase-down of lead to reduce the automover health risks from lead fuel emissions from gasoline, culminating in the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 and EPA regulations banning lead in motor automobile parts automobile vehicle gasoline after 1995.

Beginning in 1989, EPA required gasoline to meet volatility standards to decrease evaporative emissions of gasoline fuels in the automover parts summer months when ozone levels are typically at their highest. In the early 1990s, EPA began monitoring the winter oxygenated automobile fuels program implemented by the states to help control fuel emissions of carbon monoxide during the winter months, and established the reformulated gasoline (RFG) program to reduce fuel emissions of smog-forming and toxic pollutants.

More recently, EPA promulgated new regulations automobile parts setting standards for gasoline fuels toxics performance levels and standards for low sulfur gasoline fuels to reduce harmful air pollution and help ensure the automobile effectiveness of advanced emission control technologies in automobile vehicles.

Biodiesel

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Biodiesel is a form of diesel fuel manufactured from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled restaurant greases. It is safe, biodegradable, and produces less air pollutants than petroleum-based diesel.

Biodiesel can be used in its pure form (B100) or blended with petroleum diesel. Common blends include B2 (2% biodiesel), B5, and B20. B2 and B5 can be used safely in most diesel engines. However, most automobile vehicle manufacturers do not recommend using blends greater than 5%—using higher blends will void some automobile engine warranties. Check with your owner’s manual or vehicle automobile manufacturer to determine the right blend for your automobile vehicle.

Advantages

* Domestically produced from non-petroluem, renewable automobile resources
* Can be used in most diesel engines, especially newer ones
* Less air pollutants (other than nitrogen oxides) and greenhouse gases
* Biodegradable
* Non-toxic
* Safer to handle

Disadvantages

* Use of blends above B5 not yet warrantied by automobile parts makers
* Lower fuel economy and power (10% lower for B100, 2% for B20)
* Currently more expensive
* More nitrogen oxide fuel emissions
* B100 generally not suitable for use in low temperatures
* Concerns about B100's impact on engine cooling system durability

Biodiesel prices vary across the country and tend to be slightly higher than those for petroleum diesel. Visit DOE's Alternative Fuel Station Locator for locations of service stations selling biodiesel.

Light-Duty Diesel Vehicles

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Although light-duty diesel vehicles are not technically "alternative fuel vehicles," they can run on biodiesel, an alternative fuel under the Energy Policy Act of 1992. Biodiesel, which is mainly used as a blend, can be used in most light-duty diesel vehicles with no engine modification. The most common biodiesel blend is B20, which is 20% biodiesel and 80% conventional diesel. B5 (5% biodiesel, 95% diesel) is also commonly used in fleets. To learn more about this fuel, go to the Biodiesel section or the Alternative Fueling Station Locator.

Light-duty vehicles are those that have less than a 8,500 lbs gross automobile vehicle weight rating. They include sedans, pickup trucks, high-performance automobile sports cars, and passenger vans. For a list of available options, see the Automobile Diesel Technology Forum Web site.

Emissions

Currently most light-duty diesel vehicles are equipped with oxidation catalysts that reduce carbon monoxide (CO), and hydrocarbon (HC) emissions, and many have particulate matter (PM) traps that reduce PM emissions as well as CO, and HC emissions. In combination these devices can decrease CO by 80%, HC by 90% and PM by 98%.

Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) fuel emission are mostly controlled through advanced Automobile combustion strategies, such as, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). In order to meet future emission standards automobile emission control devices, such as, lean NOx traps (LNT) or selective catalytic reduction (SCR), which uses ammonia in the form of automobile urea as a reductant, may be needed on some vehicles to meet these emission standards. These devices can reduce NOx by 70-80%.

Clean Diesel

Ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD)—which is called "clean diesel" when used in conjunction with advanced fuel emission control devices—is available at fueling stations nationwide and can be used in any diesel vehicle. This automobile fuel reduces the sulfur content in diesel fuel by 97%. Europe has used ULSD for several years. The United States began its changeover to ULSD in June 2006, after the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency mandated that 80% of highway automobiel diesel fuel produced or imported contain 15 ppm or less sulfur. For more information, see the Clean Diesel Fuel Alliance.

The Federal Alternative Fuel Vehicle Tax Credit provision of EPAct 2005 includes a tax credit for lean-burn diesel vehicles. The credit is sometimes referred to as the Clean Diesel Tax Credit and is effective January 1, 2006, however, no 2006 or 2007 diesel vehicles met the fuel emissions requirements for credit. No 2008 automobile vehicles have been certified as qualifying for the credit. Diesel vehicles up to 6,000 lbs that meet EPA Tier II Bin 5 emission requirements will be eligible for the credit and automobile diesel vehicles weighing 6,001-8,500 lbs must meet Tier II Bin 8 requirements. Manufacturers will certify that their automobile vehicles meet the emissions requirements with EPA. The IRS must then issue a notice that the automover vehicle qualifies for the tax credit before consumers or commercial businesses can claim the credit. There are other IRS requirements to claim the credit. Watch www.irs.gov for more information.

What is biobutanol?

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Butanol is a 4-carbon alcohol (butyl alcohol). Biobutanol is butanol produced from biomass feedstocks. Currently, butanol's primary use is as an industrial solvent in products such as lacquers and enamels.

Biobutanol as an Alternative Fuel

Like ethanol, biobutanol is a liquid alcohol fuel that can be used in today's gasoline-powered internal combustion engines. The properties of biobutanol make it highly amenable to blending with gasoline. It is also compatible with ethanol blending and can improve the blending of ethanol with gasoline. The energy content of biobutanol is 10 to 20 percent lower than that of gasoline.

Under U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations, biobutanol can be blended as an oxygenate with gasoline in concentrations up to 11.5 percent by volume (i.e., the EPA considers blends of 11.5% or less biobutanol with gasoline to be "substantially similar" to pure gasoline). Blends of 85 percent or more biobutanol with gasoline are required to qualify as an EPAct alternative fuel. Biobutanol proponents claim that today's vehicles can be fueled with high concentrations of biobutanol—up to 100%—with minor or no vehicle modifications, although testing of this claim has been limited.

Benefits

The benefits of biobutanol are similar to the benefits of ethanol. It can be produced domestically from a variety of homegrown feedstocks while creating U.S. jobs. Greenhouse gas emissions are reduced because carbon dioxide captured when the feedstock crops are grown balances carbon dioxide released when biobutanol is burned. The following are additional potential benefits of biobutanol:

*It is easily blended with gasoline for use in today's gasoline-powered vehicles. Under U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulations, biobutanol can be blended as an oxygenate with gasoline in concentrations up to 11.5 percent by volume. Biobutanol proponents claim that gasoline-powered vehicles can be fueled with biobutanol as an alternative fuel (blends of 85 percent or more biobutanol with gasoline) with minor or no vehicle modifications, although testing of this claim has been limited.
*Its energy density is only 10 to 20% lower than gasoline's.
*It is compatible with the current gasoline distribution infrastructure and would not require new or modified pipelines, blending facilities, storage tanks, or retail station pumps.
*It is compatible with ethanol blending and can improve the blending of ethanol with gasoline.
*It can be produced using existing ethanol production facilities with relatively minor modifications.

Low-Level Biodiesel

Auto mobile automover car shipping parts transport engine system

When biodiesel is blended with petroleum diesel, it produces a fuel that is compatible with diesel engines, displaces imported petroleum, and reduces harmful emissions. Blends like B2 (2% biodiesel and 98% diesel) and B5 (5% biodiesel and 95% diesel) are becoming increasingly common as drivers become more aware of the many benefits. Higher-level biodiesel blends, such as B20, are also becoming more widely available and can qualify for credits under the Energy Policy Act of 1992.

Benefits

As of 2006, most U.S. highway diesel fuel is limited to 15-ppm sulfur, down from a 500-ppm limit. This new ultra-low sulfur diesel fuel (ULSD) might have reduced lubricating properties before additives. Adding as little as 0.25% biodiesel, which is very low in sulfur, can significantly increase fuel lubricity. B2 and B5 are becoming increasingly popular for this reason.

Another reason for using B2 or B5 is to introduce a large quantity of renewable fuel into the diesel fuel market with no noticeable impact on users or fuel properties. Using 100 gallons of B5 brings roughly the same air-quality and alternative fuel use benefits as using 25 gallons of B20 or 5 gallons of B100. Minnesota adopted a statewide requirement for B2 use in 2005. After some problems from out-of-specification fuel the first winter, the program is working well. Louisiana, Maryland, and Washington have enacted similar programs contingent on state biodiesel production reaching certain levels.

What types of vehicles can run on biodiesel blends?

As long as the biodiesel used for blending meets ASTM D6751 standards, low-level biodiesel blends such as B2 and B5 can be used safely in any compression-ignition engine designed to be operated on diesel fuel. This can include light-duty and heavy-duty diesel cars and trucks, tractors, boats, and electrical generators. See a list of stations that dispense biodiesel blends.

What is coal to liquids?

Coal to liquids is a term describing processes for converting coal into liquid fuels such as gasoline and diesel. Currently, the major coal-to-liquids production process is the Fischer-Tropsch process, involving conversion of coal into gas and then into liquids. Several processes that convert coal directly into liquids (direct liquefaction) also exist.

Coal to Liquids for Alternative Fuels

Coal-to-liquids processes have the potential to produce a range of useful fuels and chemicals. These include transportation fuels such as gasoline, diesel, and methanol. Producing liquid transportation fuels from coal using the Fischer-Tropsch process has been demonstrated on a large scale.

One major benefit of coal-to-liquids fuels is their compatibility with currently existing vehicle technologies and fuel distribution systems. Coal-derived gasoline and diesel could be transported through existing pipelines, dispensed at existing fueling stations, and used to fuel today's gasoline- and diesel-powered vehicles.

Shuttle Buses

Like transit buses, shuttle buses reduce the number of cars on the road. Shuttle buses are typically "return-to-base" fleets—they start from a central location and return to that same location at the end of the shift—and are therefore capable of centralized fueling. This makes them well suited to alternative fuel operation, as does their high-mileage operation. Many shuttle fleets have realized the benefits of alternative fuels and hybrid electric technologies and have begun to convert their fleets.

Shuttle Bus Benefits

Alternative fuel and advanced technology shuttle buses provide important benefits, including the following:

*They reduce emissions. Because shuttle buses typically accumulate many miles each day, alternative fuel and advanced technology models provide more emission reduction benefits than most other vehicles.

*They can be eligible for significant funding from the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) and excise tax credits. For more on these incentives, see Federal and State Incentives and Laws. Also learn about other funding opportunities.

*They help shuttle bus fleets reduce operational and maintenance costs while displacing petroleum use.

*They can enhance public relations when they are cleaner, quieter, and less expensive to operate than conventional buses.

For help reaping the benefits of alternative fuel and advanced technology shuttle buses, see Shuttle Bus Implementation Considerations.

Planning & Combining Trips

Combining errands into one trip saves you time and money. Several short trips taken from a cold start can use twice as much fuel as a longer multipurpose trip covering the same distance when the engine is warm. Trip planning ensures that traveling is done when the engine is warmed-up and efficient.

With a little planning, you can avoid retracing your route and reduce the distance you travel as well. You'll not only save fuel, but also reduce wear and tear on your car

Commuting

If you can stagger your work hours to avoid peak rush hours, you'll spend less time sitting in traffic and consume less fuel.

If you own more than one vehicle, drive the one that gets the best gas mileage whenever possible.

Consider telecommuting (working from home) if your employer permits it.

If possible, take advantage of carpools and ride-share programs. You can cut your weekly fuel costs in half and save wear on your car if you take turns driving with other commuters. Many urban areas allow vehicles with multiple passengers to use special High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes.

Consider using public transit if it is available and convenient for you. The American Public Transit Transportation Association has links to information about public transportation in your state.

Traveling

A roof rack or carrier provides additional cargo space and may allow you to meet your needs with a smaller car. However, a loaded roof rack can decrease your fuel economy by 5 percent. Reduce aerodynamic drag and improve your fuel economy by placing items inside the trunk whenever possible.

Avoid carrying unneeded items, especially heavy ones. An extra 100 lbs in the trunk reduces a typical car's fuel economy by 1-2 percent.

Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle Benefits

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) promise many benefits for consumers, fleets, and the nation. These advanced vehicles have the potential to cut fuel use and costs, increase U.S. energy security, protect public health and the environment, and enhance the U.S. electrical system. Government and industry research and development are overcoming the barriers to realizing these benefits.

Cutting Fuel Use and Costs

Electricity typically costs much less than gasoline or diesel fuels. Because PHEVs use electric power much of the time, and the batteries are recharged by plugging into the electrical grid, they can significantly reduce fuel use and costs. For example, if electricity costs $0.08 per kilowatt-hour and gasoline costs $2.77 per gallon, a PHEV could drive on electric power for 3 cents per mile compared with 13 cents per mile for driving on gasoline. Combined operation might result in a cost of about 6 to 8 cents per mile.

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles also offer flexible fueling options. Because PHEVs can be recharged at home much of the time, drivers can limit their trips to the gas station.

Increasing Energy Security

The United States imports more than 60% of its petroleum, two thirds of which is used to fuel vehicles in the form of gasoline and diesel. The demand for petroleum imports is increasing. With much of the worldwide petroleum reserves located in politically volatile countries, the United States is vulnerable to supply disruptions.

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles are highly efficient—requiring little petroleum-based fuel to drive—and can use electricity derived from domestic fossil fuel, nuclear, and renewable sources. PHEVs also could be designed to use renewable and domestically produced alternative fuels instead of gasoline or diesel, further reducing U.S. reliance on imported petroleum.

Protecting Public Health and the Environment

Electricity is an energy carrier rather than a primary energy source. Thus, the environmental benefits of PHEVs depend in part on the source of electricity from which the PHEVs are charged. If the electricity comes from efficient power plants, the benefits can be substantial. One U.S. study projected an average 42% carbon emissions reduction from mileage driven on electricity instead of gasoline. Even transferring the point of emissions from the tailpipe to the power plant could be important for urban areas with severe automobile-related air quality problems.

Hybrid vehicles have additional features that make them more environmentally friendly than conventional vehicles. See Hybrid Electric Vehicle Benefits to learn how hybrid systems reduce pollutant emissions.

Enhancing the Electrical System

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles have the potential to enhance the nation's electrical generation and distribution system. Electrical demand varies greatly; demand is generally high during the day and low at night. Charging PHEV batteries at night would take advantage of the low demand. If vehicle-to-grid capabilities are developed, PHEV battery capacity also could be used to help meet peak electricity demands. PHEV drivers would charge their vehicles while demand and electricity prices are low and, when their vehicles are idle, sell electricity back to the utility when demand and prices are high. This could help utilities avoid building extra generation capacity to meet peak demands.

How Hybrids Work

Hybrid-electric vehicles (HEVs) combine the benefits of gasoline engines and electric motors and can be configured to obtain different objectives, such as improved fuel economy, increased power, or additional auxiliary power for electronic devices and power tools.

Some of the advanced technologies typically used by hybrids include

Regenerative Braking. The electric motor applies resistance to the drivetrain causing the wheels to slow down. In return, the energy from the wheels turns the motor, which functions as a generator, converting energy normally wasted during coasting and braking into electricity, which is stored in a battery until needed by the electric motor.

Electric Motor Drive/Assist. The electric motor provides additional power to assist the engine in accelerating, passing, or hill climbing. This allows a smaller, more efficient engine to be used. In some vehicles, the motor alone provides power for low-speed driving conditions where internal combustion engines are least efficient.

Automatic Start/Shutoff. Automatically shuts off the engine when the vehicle comes to a stop and restarts it when the accelerator is pressed. This prevents wasted energy from idling.

Airports

Airports provide many opportunities for alternative fuel and advanced technology vehicles and have demonstrated many implementation successes. Airports are uniquely suited for these vehicles for many reasons. The duty cycles of airport vehicles feature high mileage, long idle times, and frequent stopping. Vehicles that travel to and from airports are conducive to central refueling. There are a variety of fleets and applications with many alternative fuel and advanced vehicle options, and there are many sources of outside funding for vehicle and infrastructure projects.

This page serves as the table of contents for the Airports section. Use the links below to learn more about alternative fuel and advanced technology vehicles in airport fleet applications.

Airport Benefits

Alternative fuel and advanced technology airport vehicles provide important benefits, including the following:

* They protect public health and the environment around the airport by producing fewer emissions compared with conventional vehicles.
* They can reduce airport operational and maintenance costs while displacing petroleum use.
* Their fueling infrastructure adds a potential revenue stream.
* They enhance the public image of airports and associated businesses when they are cleaner, quieter, and "greener" than conventional vehicles.
* They can be eligible for state and federal incentives and other funding opportunities, including a number that are exclusive to airport applications. See the Federal Aviation Administration's Voluntary Airport Low Emissions (VALE) Program.

Why is fuel economy important?

Saves You Money

You can save $200-$1,500 in fuel costs each year by choosing the most efficient vehicle that meets your needs. This can add up to thousands of dollars over a vehicle’s lifetime. Fuel-efficient models come in all shapes and sizes, so you don't have to sacrifice utility or size.

You can also increase the fuel economy of you current vehicle by adopting good driving habits and maintaining your vehicle.

Strengthens National Energy Security

Better fuel economy can reduce our dependence on foreign oil.

More than half of the gasoline we put in our cars comes from oil imported from other countries.

Petroleum imports cost us over $5.2 billion a week—that’s money that could be used to fuel our own economy.

Protects the Environment

Burning fossil fuels such as gasoline or diesel contributes to a number of environmental problems, such as air pollution (smog) and global climate change. In addition, spills from refining and transporting oil and petroleum products damage ecosystems and pollute groundwater and streams.

Conserves Resources

Almost all of the cars and trucks we drive run on fuels derived from oil. Oil is a non-renewable resource, and while there is some debate as to how long this resource will last, we will eventually have to find new ways to power highway vehicles. Until other alternatives are developed, it makes sense to use fossil resources such as oil more efficiently to buy time to develop new and better energy sources and to make the transition to these sources smoother and less expensive.

What is a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle?

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) can be charged with electricity like pure electric vehicles and run under engine power like hybrid electric vehicles. The combination offers increased driving range with potentially large fuel and cost savings, emissions reductions, and other benefits.

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles currently do not qualify as alternative fuel vehicles under the Energy Policy Act of 1992. However, they do qualify for incentives.

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles are still at a pre-commercial stage of development. Research and development efforts are bringing them closer to widespread commercialization.

How Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles Work

Like hybrid electric vehicles, PHEVs are powered by two energy sources—an energy conversion unit (such as an internal combustion engine or fuel cell) and an energy storage device (usually batteries).

The energy conversion unit can be powered by gasoline, diesel, compressed natural gas, hydrogen, or other fuels. The batteries can be charged by plugging into a standard 110-volt electrical outlet—a capability conventional hybrid electric vehicles do not have—in addition to being charged by the energy conversion unit when needed.

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles have a larger battery pack than conventional hybrid electric vehicles. During typical daily driving, most of a PHEV's power comes from the stored electricity. For example, a PHEV driver might drive to and from work on all-electric power, plug in the vehicle to charge it at night, and be ready for another all-electric commute in the morning. However, the engine can be used when longer trips are required, and the PHEV does not need to be plugged in to operate.

Vehicle-to-Grid Concept

Researchers are developing "vehicle-to-grid" technologies that allow a two-way connection between the plug-in hybrid electric vehicle and the local utility grid. While the vehicle is plugged in and not in use, the utility could take advantage of the extra electrical storage capacity in the vehicle batteries to help meet peak electricity demand, provide grid support services, or respond to power outages. PHEV owners could get "paid" by the utility for use of their vehicles, which would only be used when needed and without negative effects on the vehicle battery's state of charge.

What is biogas?

Biogas is the gaseous product of the anaerobic digestion (decomposition without oxygen) of organic matter. It is typically made up of 50-80% methane, 20-50% carbon dioxide, and traces of gases such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen. In contrast, natural gas is typically made up of more than 70% methane, with most of the rest being other hydrocarbons (such as propane and butane) and only small amounts of carbon dioxide and other contaminants. Biogas is sometimes called swamp gas, landfill gas, or digester gas. When its composition is upgraded to a higher standard of purity, it can be called renewable natural gas.

Biogas is used for many different applications worldwide. In rural communities, small-scale digesters provide biogas for single-household cooking and lighting. China alone is estimated to have 8–17 million of these systems. Large-scale digesters provide biogas for electricity production, heat and steam, chemical production, and vehicle fuel. In 2003, the United States consumed 147 trillion btu of energy from landfill gas, about 0.6% of total U.S. natural gas consumption.

Biogas as an Alternative Fuel

Once upgraded to the required level of purity (and compressed or liquefied), biogas can be used as an alternative vehicle fuel in the same forms as conventionally derived natural gas: compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied natural gas (LNG).

A 2007 report estimated that 12,000 vehicles are being fueled with upgraded biogas worldwide, with 70,000 biogas-fueled vehicles predicted by 2010. Europe has most of these vehicles. Sweden alone reports that more than half of the gas used in its 11,500 natural gas vehicles is biogas. Germany and Austria have established targets of 20% biogas in natural gas vehicle fuel. For more information on Europe's biogas vehicle activities, see the papers Biogas Upgrading and Utilization as Vehicle Fuel and The Future of Biogas in Europe:

In the United States, biogas vehicle activities have been on a smaller scale. Examples include a landfill in Whittier, California, that fuels vehicles with CNG derived from the landfill (also see the EPA's Clean Fuel Facility page) and an Orange County, California, landfill that produces LNG for use in transit buses.

What is a hybrid electric vehicle?

Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) typically combine the internal combustion engine of a conventional vehicle with the battery and electric motor of an electric vehicle. The combination offers low emissions, with the power, range, and convenient fueling of conventional (gasoline and diesel) vehicles—and HEVs never need to be plugged in.

Hybrid electric vehicles of the future could use alternative fuels such as biodiesel, natural gas, or ethanol. The flexibility of HEVs makes them well suited for fleet and personal transportation. Learn more about the components of a hybrid system.

Hybrid electric vehicles currently do not qualify as alternative fuel vehicles under the Energy Policy Act of 1992. However, they do qualify for incentives and provide several important benefits. Learn about currently available HEVs.

How Hybrid Electric Vehicles Work

Hybrid electric vehicles are powered by two energy sources—an energy conversion unit (such as an internal combustion engine or fuel cell) and an energy storage device (such as batteries or ultracapacitors). The energy conversion unit can be powered by gasoline, diesel, compressed natural gas, hydrogen, or other fuels.

Hybrid electric vehicles have the potential to be two to three times more fuel-efficient than conventional vehicles. HEVs can have a parallel design, a series design, or a combination of the two.

Fuel Economy Benefits

Increasing vehicle fuel economy benefits drivers by saving them money, the United States by making it less dependent of foreign oil, and the environment by releasing fewer emissions into the air.

Fuel Savings

Saving Money: photo of a hand putting money into a piggy bank.

The primary benefit of employing fuel economy measures is decreased fuel costs. Consumers and fleets can save $300 to $500 each year by driving the most fuel-efficient vehicles in a particular class. Over a vehicle's lifetime, fuel efficiency can add up to savings of thousands of dollars. Fuel-efficient models come in all shapes and sizes, so there's no need to sacrifice utility or size.

Consumers and fleets don't need to buy a new vehicle to increase their fuel economy. Proper maintenance and practical driving techniques can increase the fuel economy of their current vehicles.

The first thing to do is check your tire pressure. A vehicle running on tires that are properly inflated gets better gas mileage. Also be sure to keep your vehicle fluids up to standards. Next, consider your driving habits. Do you speed up to stop signs and hit the brakes hard? Do you make jackrabbit starts? If so, change your driving style and slow down sooner for stop lights and ease up to speed after the stop position. These simple changes can save you money and maybe even extend the life of your vehicle.

To appreciate these savings, try tracking your fuel economy for two weeks. The first week, check your odometer then drive as you usually do. At the end of the week, note the amount of gas you used that week and how many miles you got to the gallon. The following week, check your odometer again then employ the tips mentioned above. At the end of the second week, compare the mileage. Chances are you will see improved mileage during week two.

What is a fuel cell vehicle?

Fuel cell vehicles use a completely different propulsion system than conventional vehicles, which can be two to three times more efficient. Unlike conventional vehicles, they produce no harmful exhaust emissions—their only emission is water. Other benefits include increasing U.S. energy security and strengthening the economy.

Fuel cell vehicles are fueled with hydrogen, which is considered an alternative fuel under the Energy Policy Act of 1992 and qualifies for alternative fuel vehicle tax credits.

Fuel cell vehicles are still at an early stage of development. Research and development efforts are bringing them closer to commercialization.

How Fuel Cell Vehicles Work

Like electric vehicles, fuel cell vehicles use electricity to power motors located near the vehicle's wheels. In contrast to electric vehicles, fuel cell vehicles produce their primary electricity using a fuel cell. The fuel cell is powered by filling the fuel tank with hydrogen.

The most common type of fuel cell for vehicle applications is the polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell. In a PEM fuel cell, an electrolyte membrane is sandwiched between a positive electrode (cathode) and a negative electrode (anode). Hydrogen is introduced to the anode and oxygen to the cathode. The hydrogen molecules travel through the membrane to the cathode but not before the membrane strips the electrons off the hydrogen molecules.

The electrons are forced to travel through an external circuit to recombine with the hydrogen ions on the cathode side, where the hydrogen ions, electrons, and oxygen molecules combine to form water. The flow of electrons through the external circuit forms the electrical current needed to power a vehicle. See an animation of the process.

Fuel cell vehicles can be fueled with pure hydrogen gas stored directly on the vehicle or extracted from a secondary fuel—such as methanol, ethanol, or natural gas—that carries hydrogen. These secondary fuels must first be converted into hydrogen gas by an onboard device called a reformer. Fuel cell vehicles fueled with pure hydrogen emit no pollutants, only water and heat. Vehicles that use secondary fuels and a reformer produce only small amounts of air pollutants.

Fuel cell vehicles can be equipped with other advanced technologies to increase efficiency, such as regenerative braking systems, which capture the energy lost during braking and store it in a large battery.

How Natural Gas Vehicles Work

Light-duty natural gas vehicles work much like gasoline-powered vehicles with spark-ignited engines. This schematic shows basic CNG fuel system components.

CNG enters the vehicle through the natural gas fill valve (A) and flows into high-pressure cylinders (B). When the engine requires natural gas, the gas leaves the cylinders and passes through the master manual shut-off valve (C). The gas travels through the high-pressure fuel line (D) and enters the engine compartment. Gas enters the regulator (E), which reduces the gas pressure used for storage (up to 3,600 psi) to the required vehicle fuel injection system pressure. The natural gas solenoid valve (F) allows natural gas to pass from the regulator into the gas mixer or fuel injectors. The solenoid valve shuts off the natural gas when the engine is not running. Natural gas mixed with air flows down through the carburetor or fuel-injection system (G) and enters the engine combustion chambers where it is burned to produce power, just like gasoline.

Some heavy-duty vehicles use spark-ignited natural gas systems, but other systems exist as well. High-pressure direct injection engines burn natural gas in a compression-ignition (diesel) cycle.

What is Fischer-Tropsch diesel?

Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) diesel is synthetic diesel fuel produced by converting gaseous hydrocarbons, such as natural gas and gasified coal or biomass, into liquid fuel.

Fischer-Tropsch Diesel as an Alternative Fuel

Fischer-Tropsch diesel can be substituted directly for conventional (petroleum-derived) diesel to fuel diesel-powered vehicles, without modification to the vehicle engine or fueling infrastructure.

To enhance energy independence in the face of apartheid-related embargoes, South Africa satisfied most of its diesel demand with natural gas- and coal-derived F-T diesel for decades and is still using the fuel in significant quantities. More recently, global concerns about energy supplies and costs and the environment have created interest in F-T fuels elsewhere. For example, Shell markets F-T diesel as a premium diesel blend in Europe and Thailand. In the United States, F-T diesel has been used in demonstration projects.

What is a propane vehicle?

Propane, also known as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), has been used in vehicles since the 1920s. It is considered an alternative fuel under the Energy Policy Act of 1992 and qualifies for alternative fuel vehicle tax incentives.

Today, most propane vehicles are conversions from gasoline vehicles. Dedicated propane vehicles are designed to run only on propane; bi-fuel propane vehicles have two separate fueling systems that enable the vehicle to use either propane or gasoline.

Propane vehicle power, acceleration, and cruising speed are similar to those of gasoline-powered vehicles. The driving range for bi-fuel vehicles is comparable to that of gasoline vehicles. The range of dedicated gas-injection propane vehicles is generally less than gasoline vehicles because of the 25% lower energy content of propane and lower efficiency of gas-injection propane fuel systems. Extra storage tanks can increase range, but the additional weight displaces payload capacity. Liquid Propane Injection engines, introduced in 2006, promise to deliver fuel economy more comparable to gasoline systems.

Lower maintenance costs are a prime reason behind propane's popularity for use in delivery trucks, taxis, and buses. Propane's high octane rating (104 to 112 compared with 87 to 92 for gasoline) and low carbon and oil contamination characteristics have resulted in documented engine life of up to two times that of gasoline engines. Because the fuel mixture (propane and air) is completely gaseous, cold start problems associated with liquid fuel are eliminated.

Compared with vehicles fueled with conventional diesel and gasoline, propane vehicles can produce significantly lower amounts of harmful emissions. Another benefit of propane vehicles is increasing U.S. energy security.

B20 and B100: Alternative Fuels

The interest in biodiesel as an alternative transportation fuel stems mainly from its renewable, domestic production; its safe, clean-burning properties; and its compatibility with existing diesel engines.

Biodiesel can be legally blended with petroleum diesel in any percentage. The percentages are designated as B20 for a blend containing 20% biodiesel and 80% petroleum diesel, B100 for 100% biodiesel, and so forth. B100 and blends of B20 or higher qualify for alternative fuel credits under the Energy Policy Act of 1992.

B20

Twenty percent biodiesel and 80% petroleum diesel—B20—is the most common biodiesel blend in the United States. Using B20 provides substantial benefits but avoids many of the cold-weather performance and material compatibility concerns associated with B100.

B20 can be used in nearly all diesel equipment and is compatible with most storage and distribution equipment. B20 and lower-level blends generally do not require engine modifications. Not all diesel engine manufacturers cover biodiesel use in their warranties, however. See the National Biodiesel Board's Standards and Warranties page to learn more about engine warranties. Because diesel engines are expensive, users should consult their vehicle and engine warranty statements before using biodiesel. It is similarly important to use biodiesel that meets prescribed quality standards—ASTM D6751-07b (see Biodiesel Production for more information on this standard).

Biodiesel contains about 8% less energy per gallon than petroleum diesel. For B20, this could mean a 1 to 2% difference, but most B20 users report no noticeable difference in performance or fuel economy. Greenhouse gas and air-quality benefits of biodiesel are roughly commensurate with the blend; B20 use provides about 20% of the benefit of B100 use and so forth. Low-level biodiesel blends also provide benefits.

B100

B100 or other high-level biodiesel blends can be used in some engines built since 1994 with biodiesel-compatible material for parts such as hoses and gaskets. However, as biodiesel blend levels increase significantly beyond B20, a number of concerns come into play. Users must be aware of lower energy content per gallon and potential issues with impact on engine warranties, low-temperature gelling, solvency/cleaning effect if regular diesel was previously used, and microbial contamination.

B100 use could also increase nitrogen oxides emissions, although it greatly reduces other toxic emissions. All these issues can be handled, but currently B100 use might be best for professional fleets with maintenance departments prepared to deal with this fuel.

What is Natural Gas?

Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbons, predominantly methane (CH4). As delivered through the pipeline system, it also contains hydrocarbons such as ethane and propane and other gases such as nitrogen, helium, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and water vapor. See the AFDC Fuel Properties database for more details.

Natural gas has a high octane rating and excellent properties for spark-ignited internal combustion engines. It is non-toxic, non-corrosive, and non-carcinogenic. It presents no threat to soil, surface water, or groundwater.

Most natural gas is extracted from gas and oil wells. Much smaller amounts are derived from supplemental sources such as synthetic gas, landfill gas and other biogas resources, and coal-derived gas.

Natural gas accounts for approximately one quarter of the energy used in the United States. Of this, about one third goes to residential and commercial uses, one third to industrial uses, and one third to electric power production. Only about one tenth of one percent is currently used for transportation fuel.

What is ultra-low sulfur diesel?

Ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) is diesel fuel with 15 parts per million (ppm) or lower sulfur content. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency requires 80% of the highway diesel fuel refined in or imported into the United States (100% in California) to be ULSD as of 2006. One hundred percent must be ULSD nationwide by 2010. Different requirements apply to non-highway diesel.

Currently, the vast majority of ULSD is produced from petroleum. However, biodiesel; biomass-to-liquids, coal-to-liquids, and gas-to-liquids diesel; and hydrogenation-derived renewable diesel are inherently ultra-low sulfur fuels and could help meet ULSD requirements in the future. Petroleum-based ULSD is not considered an alternative fuel under the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct), but most ULSD fuels produced from non-petroleum and renewable sources are considered EPAct alternative fuels.

Ultra-Low Sulfur Diesel as a Vehicle Fuel

Ultra-low sulfur content in diesel fuel is beneficial because it enables use of advanced emission control technologies on light-duty and heavy-duty diesel vehicles. The combination of ULSD with advanced emission control technologies is sometimes called Clean Diesel.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) are the two most harmful diesel pollutant emissions. These emissions can be controlled with the use of catalytic converters (for NOx) and particulate traps (for PM). However, sulfur—in amounts that used to be allowable in diesel fuel—deactivates these devices and nullifies their emissions control benefits. Using ULSD enables these devices to work properly.

In general, ULSD should cause no noticeable impact on vehicle performance, although fuel economy might be slightly reduced because the process that produces ULSD can also reduce the fuel's energy content. Removing sulfur from diesel reduces lubricity. This issue can be resolved by the addition of additives prior to retail sale that increase lubricity. In addition, blending biodiesel with ULSD also increases lubricity.

Using ULSD in older diesel vehicles might affect fuel system components or loosen deposits in fuel tanks. These vehicles should be monitored closely for fuel system problems and premature fuel filter plugging during the transition to ULSD. New vehicles designed to use ULSD must never be fueled with a higher-sulfur fuel. If kerosene is blended with ULSD for improved cold-weather performance, it must be ultra-low sulfur (15 ppm or lower) kerosene. New engine oils have been developed for use with new diesel vehicles fueled with ULSD.

What is hydrogen?

Hydrogen is the simplest and most abundant element in the universe—it is number 1 on the periodic table of elements (this link takes you to Los Alamos National Laboratory's site). At Earth surface temperatures and pressures, it is a colorless, odorless gas (H2). However, hydrogen is rarely found alone in nature. It is usually bonded with other elements. See the AFDC Fuel Properties database for more details.

Very little hydrogen gas is present in Earth's atmosphere. Hydrogen is locked up in enormous quantities in water (H2O), hydrocarbons (such as methane, CH4), and other organic matter. Efficiently producing hydrogen from these compounds is one of the challenges of using hydrogen as a fuel.

Currently, steam reforming of methane (natural gas) accounts for about 95% of the hydrogen produced in the United States. Almost all of the approximately 9 million tons of hydrogen produced here each year are used for refining petroleum, treating metals, producing fertilizer, and processing foods. Hydrogen has been used for space flight since the 1950s; learn more on the NASA Web site.

Hydrogen also can be used to fuel internal combustion engines and fuel cells, both of which can power low- or zero-emissions vehicles such as fuel cell vehicles. Major research and development efforts are aimed at making hydrogen vehicles practical for widespread use.

Diesel Vehicles

Diesel vehicles may be making a comeback. Diesel engines are more powerful and fuel-efficient than similar-sized gasoline engines (about 30-35% more fuel efficient). Plus, today's diesel vehicles are much improved over diesels of the past.

Better Performance

Improved fuel injection and electronic engine control technologies have

• Increased power
• Improved acceleration
• Increased efficiency

New engine designs, along with noise- and vibration-damping technologies, have made them quieter and smoother. Cold-weather starting has been improved also.

Cleaner

Today's diesels must meet the same emissions standards as gasoline vehicles, and advances in engine technologies, ultra-low sulfur diesel fuel, and improved exhaust treatment have made this possible.

Although emissions of particulates and smog-forming nitrogen oxides (NOx) are still relatively high, new "clean" diesel fuels, such as ultra-low sulfur diesel and biodiesel, and advances in emission control technologies will reduce these pollutants also.

Automotive Parts

The vehicle that you are driving today will be a source of numerous recyclable materials tomorrow. Vehicle parts offer recycling opportunities for materials such as steel, aluminum, plastics, antifreeze, and batteries, as well as whole parts such as tires, seats, engines, and alternators.

Just the Facts

* Each year, nearly all of the 27 million cars around the world that reach the end of their useful life are recovered for recycling.
* Automotive recyclers now can recover nearly 80 percent of the total materials by weight from a vehicle, according to the United States Council on Automotive Research (USCAR) Exit EPA Disclaimer, an organization of auto manufacturers that work together on shared technological and environmental concerns.
* The remaining 20 percent of vehicle materials that cannot be recycled is called auto shredder residue (ASR). ASR includes plastics, rubber, wood, paper, fabric, glass, sand, dirt, and ferrous and nonferrous metal pieces.
* Five million tons of ASR are disposed of in landfills each year.
* Consumers purchasing used or reconditioned parts save 50 percent or more compared to the cost of purchasing new parts.
* More than 25 million tons of materials are recycled from vehicles each year. Automotive recycling is generally calculated separately from the MSW recycling rate.
* Nearly 90 percent of automotive aluminum is recovered and recycled. Although this aluminum represents less than 10 percent of the average motor vehicle by weight, it accounts for roughly half of the vehicle's value as scrap.
* Auto recyclers supply more than one-third of all ferrous scrap (iron and steel) to the U.S. scrap processing industry. When manufacturers use scrap iron and steel instead of virgin ore, they reduce air and water pollution by more than half during the manufacturing process.